Approaches to Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors

Approaches to Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors
The most effective manner for screening for behavioral risk factors is not well defined; however, simple approaches are more acceptable to both patients and health-care providers (53). Screening tools should be designed to be as sensitive as possible for identifying behavioral risks; a more detailed, personalized assessment can then be used to improve specificity and provide additional detail. The sensitivity of screening instruments depends on obtaining accurate information. However, accuracy of information can be influenced by a variety of factors: recall, misunderstanding about risk, legal concerns, concern about confidentiality of the information and how the information will be used, concern that answers may affect ability to receive services, concern that answers may affect social desirability (i.e., the tendency to provide responses that will avoid criticism), and the desire for social approval (the tendency to seek praise) (45,55). Interviewer factors also influence the accuracy of information. Surveys indicate that patients are more likely to discuss risk behaviors if they perceive their clinicians are comfortable talking about stigmatized topics such as sex and drug use (46–49) and are nonjudgmental, empathetic, knowledgeable, and comfortable counseling patients about sexual risk factors (41,46–50). These factors need to be considered when interpreting responses to screening questions. To the extent possible, screening and interventions should be individualized to meet patient needs. Examples of two screening approaches are provided (Box 1).
Incorporating Screening for Behavioral Risk Factors into the Office Visit
Before the patient is seen by the clinician, screening for behavioral risks can be done with a self-administered questionnaire; a computer-, audio-, or video-assisted questionnaire; or a brief interview with ancillary staff; the clinician can then review the results on the patient’s medical record. Alternatively, behavioral risk screening can be done during the medical encounter (e.g., as part of the history); either open-ended questions or a checklist approach with in-depth discussion about positive responses can be used (Box 1). Because, given patients’ immediate health needs, it can be difficult in the clinical care setting to remember less urgent matters such as risk screening and harm reduction, provider reminder systems (e.g., computerized reminders) have been used by health-care systems to help ensure that recommended procedures are done regularly. Multicomponent health-care system interventions that include a provider reminder system and a provider education program are effective in increasing delivery of certain prevention services (59). Risk screening might be more likely to occur in managed care settings if the managed care organization specifically calls for it (60).
Screening for Clinical Risk Factors Screening for STDs
Recommendations for preventive measures, including medical screening and vaccinations, that should be included in the care of HIV-infected persons (16,21,39,44,54,61–69) have been published previously. This report is not intended to duplicate existing recommendations; it addresses screening specifically to identify clinical factors associated with increased risk for transmission of HIV from infected to noninfected persons. In this context, STDs are the primary infections of concern for three reasons. First, the presence of STDs often suggests recent or ongoing sexual behaviors that may result in HIV transmission. Second, many STDs enhance the risk for HIV transmission or acquisition (22,70–73). Early detection and treatment of bacterial STDs might reduce the risk for HIV transmission. Third, identification and treatment of STDs can reduce the potential for spread of these infections among high-risk groups (i.e., sex or drug-using networks).
Screening and diagnostic testing serve distinctly different purposes. By definition, screening means testing on the basis of risk estimation, regardless of clinical indications for testing, and is a cornerstone of identifying persons at risk for transmitting HIV to others. Clinicians should routinely ask about STD symptoms, including urethral or vaginal discharge; dysuria; intermenstrual bleeding; genital or anal ulcers or other lesions; anal pain, pruritus, burning, discharge, or bleeding; and, for women, lower abdominal pain with or without fever. Regardless of reported sexual behavior or other epidemiologic risk information, the presence of such symptoms should always prompt diagnostic testing and, when appropriate, treatment. However, clinical symptoms are not sensitive for identifying many infections because most STDs are asymptomatic (74–81); therefore, laboratory screening of HIV-infected persons is an essential tool for identifying persons at risk for transmitting HIV and other STDs.